Technology companies are much more investment driven. The Technology S-Curve is a theoretical model used frequently in technology investment planning.

• Base technologies - these are areas that the organization must master to stay competitive, but competence beyond mastery holds no real competitive advantage.
• Key technologies - these are areas where competitive advantages lie; the organization should strive to not only master, but to be "world class" in these technologies.
• Pacing technologies - these are areas that will help assure the organization's future competitiveness.

In diversified organizations (those with more than one product line or serving more than one market), there is typically internal competition for limited organizational resources. In this situation, the s-curve can manifest as the "business portfolio matrix".

NIST has developed Technology Balance Sheet as a comprehensive portfolio-style approach.

Planning is concerned with predictions of what potential customers want, what competitors will develop, what suppliers will make available, what inflation and interest rates will be, etc. Forecasting is therefore an important planning element. Forecasting is typically classified as either qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative forecasting is appropriate when numerical models and data are unavailable or inappropriate. Examples of qualitative methods include jury of executive opinion, expert opinion and customer opinion. Methods for determining opinion include Delphi panels, Nominal Group Technique, brainstorming, surveys and content analysis.

Quantitative forecasting techniques include least squares regression, time series, and dynamic systems analysis. Least squares regression models have the general vector form:

where the values for the regression coefficients are:

Examples of least squares modeling are illustrated in the text.

Moving average and exponential smoothing are forms of time series. They are also called autoregressive models because the values of the dependent variable in previous time periods are explanatory variables for he current forecast. Another form of time series analysis applies harmonic methods. Harmonic methods use Fourier analysis to create a model of the form:

omega and theta are chosen to form an orthogonal basis for modeling coefficients a(i).

Dynamic analysis includes rates of independent and dependent variables among the explanatory variables and are generally formulated as non-linear, partial differential or difference equations. Such expressions are typically difficult to resolve with direct mathematical analysis and are explored via computer simulation.

Organizational and Personal Ethics

Factors Effecting Ethical Decision Making

Operational Models for Ethical Decision Making

Internationalization

Reasons for Internationalization

• Capital Efficiency
• Tariff Avoidance
• Product Delivery Cycle Time
• Raw Material Sources
• Transportation Costs
• Labor Costs
• Regulatory Environment

Phases of Internationalization

Benefits of Internationalization

Challenges of Internationalization

Instruments of Internationalization

International Trade Integration and Trade Barriers

Market and Workforce Diversity

• Internationalization
• Birth Rate Trends
• Immigration Rate Trends
• Longevity and Medical Trends
• Increase in two income families
• Increase in single parent/"non-traditional" families

Structural Organization Analysis

Departmentalization Models

• Customer
• Functional
• Process
• Product
• Region
• Hybrid
• Hybrid-Matrix

Organizational Roles

• Line
• Staff
• Service

  Centralization Benefits	Decentralization Benefits
  Decision makers in close proximity	More opportunities to develop individuals
  Leverage scarce experienced managers	Decisions closer to the source of need
  Economies of Scale	Increases initiative
  Reduce Duplication	Increases satisfaction

Span of Control

• Relationship to organization levels
• Factors influencing effective spans
  • Staff turnover
  • Information Technology
  • Nature of job
    • Clarity
    • Simplicity
    • Task Turnover
    • Training

• Line
  
• Function
  

Accountability - subject to the obligation to justify something or complete a task; Accountability is defined formally in job descriptions, employee development plans and appraisals.

• Direct - individual's actions
  
• Inherited - actions of subordinates
  

Delegation - to commit to another as agent. Advantages of delegation include:

• Manage more things with same personal resources
• Decisions closer to the problem source
• Increase pride and ownership in decision
• Development of subordinates
• Use individual skills to best advantage

Degrees of Delegation
1. Take action -- no further contact needed
2. Take action -- report what you did
3. Investigate problem -- report your recommendation, take action unless told otherwise
4. Investigate problem -- report your recommendation, wait for approval to take action
5. Investigate problem -- report all facts

Factors that impact the effectiveness of delegation include:

• Sufficiency of Delegation (accountability/authority gap)
• Completeness of Delegation
• Match between Situation and Degree of Delegation

Social/Psychological Organization Analysis

• Legitimate (authority)
• Reward
• Coercive

• Expert
• Referent
• Access
• Coalition

• Individual Coping Mechanisms
• Matrix Management Organizations
• Flat Organizations/Self-Directed Work Environments

Leadership

Leadership skills include:

• Power
• Appraisal
• Planning
• Control
• Motivation
• Delegation

• Advocate
• Coach
• Mentor

Some lists are even more exhaustive. The multi-attribute nature of leadership suggests that the need and intensity for different traits is contingent, or depends, on the current situation. One class of situational models is maturity or life-cycle models. In these models, a decrease in the need for invasive skills like planning, control and motivation occurs naturally as the managed task becomes ingrained. This coincides with an increased need for supportive skills like advocacy and coaching as delegation becomes more complete and ownership, if not responsibility, for the task transitions. The degrees of delegation concept can be applied as a dynamic life-cycle model.

Motivation

Individual Motivation

• Taylor - Scientific Management 1911
  
• Maslow - Hierarchy of Needs 1943
  
  1. Physiological
     
  2. Safety
     
  3. Acceptance
     
  4. Esteem
     
  5. Actualization
• McGregor - Theory X and Theory Y 1957
  
• Herzberg - Hierarchical Two Factor Theory 1968; the survey results included in the presentation of Herzberg's theory identified the following factors within the two factor classes:
  

Process models are concerned with how to control motivation. Popular process models include:

• Reinforcement theory
• Equity theory-reinforcement and rewards should be "fair"
• Expectancy theory-motivation is influenced by:
  • expectation whether action will achieve desired outcome
  • expectation whether credit/reward for action will be proportional to outcome

Principles of Reinforcement theory include:

• Focus on behaviors, not results
• Antecedent -> Behavior -> Consequence (ABC) Chain
• Consequences modify behavior frequency and intensity
• Type, contiguity and risk of consequences are critical factors.

ABC Chain

• Antecedent - clear definition of who, what, where, when, why and how of target behavior
• Behavior - Measurable, Observable, Reliable
• Consequence - can serve secondary function of antecedent for repeat of behavior

There are four consequence types used to either increase or decrease behavior frequency and intensity:

• Increase Behavior - Positive Reinforcement (R+), Negative Reinforcement (R-)
• Decrease Behavior - Punishment(P+), Extinction (P-).

Consequence Critical Factors:

• Type - Positive or Negative, variable or fixed ratio
• Contiguity - Immediate or Future, variable or fixed interval
• Risk - Certain or Uncertain.

Reinforcement Theory rules of thumb:

• R- and P- are most natural and frequently occurring behavior consequences
• Naturally occurring consequences of many positive behaviors are NICs and PFUs
• R+ is the most effective way to develop and maintain high levels of motivation
• Immediate R+ is the more effective than delayed R+
• R+ should have more social value than tangible value
• At least 4 R+ for every R-
• Avoid "dead-man rules"
• R+ is in the eyes of the beholder

Group Motivation

• attention
  
• self presentation
  
• self awareness
  

Conflicting goals and "Disharmony" dynamics in Technology Organizations

	R & D	Manufacturing	Marketing
Finance	Control Cost vs. R&D Expansion	Control Cost vs. Capital Investment	Control Cost vs. Marketing Expense
R & D		Creativity vs. Standards	Time to Market vs. Product Validation
Manufacturing			Short Notice vs. Long Production Run

Personal Career Success Criteria

• Income/Benefits
  
• Stability
• Authority
  
• Work Location
  
• Working Hours
  
• Travel
  
• Interpersonal Relationships
  
• Contribution to Society
  

Career Charting

• Personality assessment
  
• Skills assessment
  
• Generalization and Specialization
  
• Coop/Apprenticeship
  
• Industry type
  
• Career type
  
• Business size
  
• Job and Benefits Negotiation
  
• Career stages
  
• Location
  

Career Success Tools

Communication

Personal Productivity

Efficiency

Computers

Continuing Education and Professional Activity

Personal Financial Planning

1. Prepare Budget/Statement of Net Worth

Budget:
        Income
                Wages
                Interest                                _________
                Total Income

        Expenses
                House Payments
                Food
                Energy
                Transportation
                Clothes
                Entertainment
                Consumer Loans
                Retirement Savings
                Life Insurance
                Disability Insurance
                Property Insurance
                Mortgage Insurance
                Taxes 
                Savings Goal #1
                Savings Goal #2
                Savings Goal #3                         _________
                Total Savings

                Discretionary Income

Net Worth:
        Assets
                Cash/Checking
                Home
                Auto
                Investments/Savings
                Valuables
                Property                                _________
                Total Assets

        Liabilities
                Mortgage
                Consumer Debt #1
                Consumer Debt #2
                Consumer Debt #3                        _________
                Total Liabilities

        Net Worth
        Ready Cash Reserve

Financial Management Strategies:

It is usually easier to increase discretionary income by reducing expenses than by increasing income. Acquire investments and value-holding assets while reducing debt and other liabilities to increase net worth. Investments should be diversified to minimize risk. Ready cash reserve should equal 3-6 months of your expenses. Establish and increase lines of credit to provide additional flexibility in case of emergencies. Avoid credit and the associated interest expense except for emergencies.

Tax Reduction Strategies:

Very few tax reduction strategies are left to individuals these days. One of the more popular is the mortgage interest deduction. If you have a large amount of consumer debt (credit cards, cars, etc.) you can effectively deduct the interest payments by refinancing your mortgage and paying off the consumer debt immediately.

Income on municipal bonds is often tax deferred. Growth stock investments, that pay low dividends but offer the potential for large capital gains, are are effectively tax-deferred investments if held until you are in a lower tax bracket.

2. Insurance

3. Personal Goals

4. Retirement

5. Estate Planning

• Babcock, D.L. Managing Engineering and Technology, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1996.
• Bell, C.G., "Understanding the Technology Balance Sheet - A Key to Leadership," CDTL Lecture Series, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1991.
• Bolles, R.N., What Color is Your Parachute: A Practical Manual for Job Hunters and Career Changers, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, 1977.
• Box, G.E.P., Jenkins, G.M., Time Series Analysis: forecasting and control, Holden-Day, San Francisco, 1976.
• Byrd, R.E., A Guide to Personal Risk Taking, American Management Association, New York, 1974.
• Cleland, I.C., Kocaoglu, D.F., Engineering Management, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1981.
• Costley, D.L., Todd, R., Human Relations in Organizations, 2nd ed. West, St. Paul, 1983.
• Daniels, A.C., Rosen, T.A., Performance Management: Improving Quality and Productivity through Positive Reinforcement, Performance Management Publications, Tucker, 1986.
• Davis, B.L., Hellervik, L.W., Sheard, J.L. (eds), Successful Manager's Handbook, Personnel Decisions, Minneapolis, 1986.
• Deming, W.E., "Improvement of Quality and Productivity through Action by Management," National Productivity Review 1, Winter 1981-1982.
• Dhillon, B.S., Engineering Management: Concepts, Procedures and Models, Technomic, Lancaster, 1987.
• Forrester, J.W., "Designing Social and Managerial Systems," CDTL Lecture Series, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1991.
• Glos, R.E., Stead, R.D., Lowry, J.R., Business: Its Nature and Environment, 8th ed., South-Western, Cincinnati, 1976.
• Gordon, T., Leader Effectiveness Training, Putnam, New York, 1977.
• Groover, M.P., Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Aided Manufacturing, Technomic, Lancaster, 1987.
• Johnson, D.W., Johnson, F.P., Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, Bacon, Boston, 1994.
• Lakein, A., How to get Control of your Time and your Life, Signet, New York, 1973.
• McCay, J.T., The Management of Time, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1959.
• Oncken, W., Managing Management Time, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1984.
• Pickle, H.B., Abrahamson, R.,L,. Small Business Management, Wiley, Santa Barbara, 1976.
• Powers, D.L., Boundary Value Problems, 2nd ed., Academic Press, New York, 1979.
• Rosenau, M.D., Innovation: Managing the Development of Profitable New Products, Lifetime Learning, 1989.
• Scott, W.R., Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1987.
• Stoner, J.A.F., Freeman, R.E., Management, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 1989.
• Webber, R.A., Management: basic elements of managing organizations, Irwin , 1979.
• Wren, D.A., The Evolution of Management Thought, 2nd ed., Wiley , 1979.

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